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View: Reply: A Offline. Post time Show all posts Read mode. I want to Be A member Genes quickly established itself as one of the foremost teaching resources in modern biology following its first publication in It has retained that position through two further editions and It was the first textbook to provide a unified view of the molecular biology ofprokaryotes bacteria and eukaryotes higher organisms - animals and plants but this integrated view has always been supported by descriptions of the approaches that the researchers are currently using, making it the most consistently up-to-date account of the rapid advances which have been madein this field during the s.
The purpose of this book is to give an account of what is known about the structure and function of genes in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The author provides a authoritative, consistent discussion of the complex biochemical and genetic answers to some crucial questions. What is a gene? How isit reproduced? How are its characteristics conceived or modified within individuals or over evolutionary time? How is it expressed?
What controls expression? In effect it covers the ground that now constitutes the core of any modern course in genetics or biochemistry above the most elementarylevel. Genes VII gives an integrated and authoritative account of the structure and function of genes. It is thoroughly up to date with the latest research and thinking in the field. Successive editions have provided an integrated account of the whole field of modern molecular genetics and thisedition continues that approach, providing a new synthesis and continuing the greater emphasis on how genes function in their biological context.
In a change to all previous editions, which started with a traditional analysis of formal genetics, this seventh edition has been organised to present thesubject in the context of the eukaryotic gene as revealed in the last decade, an analysis based directly on the molecular properties of the gene itself.
From the Preface: "The thesis of Genes is that only by understanding the structure and function of the gene itself will we be able in turn to understand the operation of the genome as a whole. Although the emphasis has shifted to the characterization of eukaryotic genes, and therefore to theiranalysis by the direct techniques of molecular biology rather than the subtlety of genetics, the classical approach remains intellectually penetrating.
It remains an aim of this book to integrate both approaches in the context of a unified approach to prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Genes V was regarded as essential reading for all students of molecular biology. This updated and restructured new edition is even better as the editing has meant that caveats and details have been altered to give a better flow of information. Published on Jun 5, Slideshare uses cookies to improve functionality and performance, and to provide you with relevant advertising.
English for academics book 1. Power and empire book review. Transmission and distribution of electrical power book pdf. Power transmission and distribution book pdf. Angie lewin plants and places book. The majority are peeling in paint, rotted wood, various materials wood, stucco, tin on the same house. OC: Priorities, energies, financial resources do not go into the appearance of homes.
There are more important things to worry about. Protection from robbers, protection of property. Keep your distance — this is mine. But the things seen through the window and in the yard clue you that someone still lives there.
I notice TV antennas on several roofs. It is essential groundwork for Second Cycle coding and further analysis and interpretation Wolcott, , p. I notice TV antennas rather than cable on several roofs.
Surfaces on the houses vary. Maybe one per block looks fairly well painted. Some, because of their disrepair, look unattended and abandoned. But look in the yards and inside the homes through their windows: people still live here. Laundry hangs on clotheslines in the back yards of several homes. The major- ity have dirt front yards where the only vegetation growing is weeds.
Maybe one house per block has what would be called a lawn; other front yards contain desk chairs and worn upholstered furniture. Another house has a picture portrait of Jesus and a cross on its front wall.
The method categorizes data at a basic level to provide the researcher an organizational grasp of the study. In this manual, In Vivo Coding will be used since it is the most well-known label. Folk or indigenous terms are participant-generated words from members of a particular culture, subculture, or microculture. In Vivo Coding is one method of extracting these indigenous terms and refer to Domain and Taxonomic Coding for more specific catego- rization guidelines.
In Vivo Coding is particularly useful in educational ethnographies with youth. Example An adult female interviewer talks to Tiffany, a 16 year-old teenage girl, about her friendships at high school. It was 12 kind of strange. Their salience may be attributed to such features as impacting nouns, action- oriented verbs, evocative word choices, clever or ironic phrases, similes and metaphors, etc.
Key writers of grounded theory advocate meticulous work and that an In Vivo or other Code should appear next to every line of data. Depending on your goals, InVivo Codes can be applied with less frequency, such as one word or phrase for every three to five sentences. Trust your instincts with InVivo Coding.
Researcher reflection through analytic memo writing, coupled with Second Cycle coding, will condense the number of In Vivo Codes and provide a reanalysis of your initial work. In Vivo Codes can provide imagery, symbols, and metaphors for rich category, theme, and concept devel- opment. Strauss , p. Sometimes the participant says it best; sometimes the researcher does. Be prepared and willing to mix and match coding methods as you proceed with data analysis.
But be aware that some CAQDAS functions will retrieve multiple text units only if they share the exact same code you have applied to them.
In Vivo coded data most often are so unique that they will require careful review and self-categorization into an NVivo node, for example.
But be wary of overdependence on the strategy because it can limit your ability to transcend to more conceptual and theoretical levels of analysis and insight. Simple observable activity e. Like In Vivo Coding, Process Coding is not necessarily a specific method that should be used as the sole coding approach to data, though it can be with small-scale projects.
Note how the codes are all gerund-based: 1 1 Mrs. So … I: Have you ever had rumors spread about you? SAY Analysis The conventions of story-line are used in analytic memo writing when reviewing data for process — e.
These sequences or processes can be ordered as a numeric series of actions, listed as a bullet-pointed set of outcomes, or graphically rep- resented with first-draft illustrations as a flow diagram.
Simple examples based on the interview above include: Narrative — Spreading Rumors: 1. Coded Process — Spreading Rumors: 1. Process refers to movement and change over time. CAQDAS program linking functions enable you to mark the trail of partici- pant process throughout the data corpus. It is an opportunity for you as a researcher to reflect deeply on the contents and nuances of your data and to begin taking ownership of them.
Initial Coding is not necessarily a spe- cific formulaic method. It is a First Cycle, open-ended approach to coding the data with some recommended general guidelines. Initial Coding can employ In Vivo Coding or Process Coding, for example, or other selected methods profiled in this manual.
At times you may notice that elements of a possible or developing category are contained within the data. If so, code them during the initial cycle. Applications Initial Coding is appropriate for virtually all qualitative studies, but particularly for beginning qualitative researchers learning how to code data, ethnographies, and studies with a wide variety of data forms e.
All proposed codes during this cycle are tentative and provisional. The task can also alert the researcher that more data are needed to support and build an emerging theory. Charmaz advises that detailed, line-by-line Initial Coding as it is out- lined below is perhaps more suitable for interview transcripts than for researcher-generated field notes.
But Clarke , in her postmodern approach to grounded theory, stresses the need to examine the nonhuman material ele- ments of our social world that will be found in field notes and artifacts. It is not required during Initial Coding, but since one of the eventual goals of grounded theory is to formulate categories from codes, I occasionally include not only a Process Code e.
These referents may or may not later evolve into categories, dimensions, or properties of the data as analysis continues: [I: Last week you were talking about the snobby girls at lunchroom. So what kind of, who are your friends? Like, what kind of people do you hang out with? No, in school. Codes in parentheses or accompa- nied with question marks can be part of the process for analytic follow-up or memo writing. One major facet of Initial Coding to grounded theory methodologists is the search for processes — participant actions that have antecedents, causes, conse- quences, and a sense of temporality.
Also during this or later cycles of grounded theory coding, there will be a search for the properties and dimensions of categories — conceptual ideas that bring together similarly-coded and related passages of data. These cat- egories and their properties may or may not be developed further during Second Cycle coding. Notice that memo writing also serves as a code- and category-generating method.
Tiffany is aware of the cliques, their attributed labels, and their accompanying stereotypes at school. Emotion Coding and Values Coding tap into the inner cognitive systems of participants. Emotion Coding, quite simply, labels the feelings participants may have experienced. Versus Coding acknowledges that humans are frequently in conflict, and the codes identify which individuals, groups, or systems are struggling for power. Critical studies lend themselves to Versus Codes. Evaluation Coding focuses on how we can analyze data that judge the merit and worth of programs and policies.
Applications Emotion Coding is appropriate for virtually all qualitative studies, but par- ticularly for those that explore intrapersonal and interpersonal participant experiences and actions. Desperate and 9 lonely. Emotion Codes alone can be applied to data very similar in content and context — e. Which emotions are present during child custody hearings? Which emotions are present during the signing of legal paperwork related to divorce?
Also acknowledge that emotional states are very complex, and single experiences can include multiple or conflicting emotions. And since emotional responses are intricately woven with our value, attitude, and belief systems,Values Coding also becomes a critical concurrent method.
During data collection, explore the participant emotions before anger, and scan your data during analysis when an ANGER code is present to determine the trig- gering emotion and its appropriate code. Developmentally, middle childhood approximately ages 8—9 is a period of emotional ambivalence in which children experience new emotions but do not necessarily have the vocabulary to describe them. Some young people and adults may use metaphors and similes to explain their feelings e.
But if a metaphoric phrase seems to evocatively — if not more accurately — capture the experience, consider keeping it as the code of choice. Researchers may find themselves making several inferences about the subtextual emo- tional experiences of some participants in selected settings and contexts. Stay particularly attuned to participant body language and the nuances of voice.
Each major discipline psychology, sociology, human communication, human development, education, etc. The subject is intricately complex, so explore the liter- ature in your field of study to assess the conceptual frameworks, operating def- initions, and theories regarding emotions. Though each construct has a different meaning,Values Coding, as a term, subsumes all three.
Briefly, a value is the importance we attribute to oneself, another person, thing, or idea. An attitude is the way we think and feel about oneself, another person, thing, or idea. Applications Values Coding is appropriate for virtually all qualitative studies, but particularly for those that explore cultural values and intrapersonal and interpersonal par- ticipant experiences and actions in case studies.
Values Codes can be determined a priori beforehand as Provisional Codes, or constructed during coding of the data. Values Coding is applicable not only to interview transcripts, but also to field notes in which naturalistic participant actions are documented. What a participant states are his values, attitudes, and beliefs may not always be truthful or harmonize with his observed actions and interactions. Example The types of Values Codes in the example below are distinguished through the use of V: value , A: attitude , and B: belief , though it can sometimes be a slippery task to determine which participant statement is which type.
CAREER Analysis If you have coded units according to values, attitudes, and beliefs, the next step is to categorize them and reflect on their collective meaning, interaction, and interplay, working under the premise that the three constructs are part of an interconnected system. The quantitative data, how- ever, transform meaning into numbers for statistical analysis, yet still has its place in such fields as psychology, opinion research, and organizational studies. Also, these quantitative scales assume direction and intensity of a value, attitude, and belief, necessitating a fixed, linear continuum of response e.
Qualitative inquiry provides richer opportunities for gathering and assessing, in language-based mean- ings, what the participant values, believes, thinks, and feels about social life.
But if the study is critical ethnography, for example, then the latter code may be more appropri- ate. Values Coding is values-laden. He observed in Teachers versus Technocrats that this social division extends throughout educator subculture during times of stress rather than daily business pp.
Moieties exist in many facets of social life, and there is generally an asymmetrical power balance between them, a duality that manifests itself as an X VS. Y code e. Applications Versus Coding is appropriate for policy studies, discourse analysis, and qualitative data sets that suggest strong conflicts within, among, and between participants.
He or she examines the power that holds patterns in place, how people accept or struggle against them. Example In a study of teachers responding to state developed fine arts standards for educational achievement Hager et al.
Strong conflicts were evident in the data as participants openly shared their perspectives. I tend to personalize projects for the students. Analysis Conflicting personnel, perspectives, policies, philosophies, curricula, practices, etc.
In the study profiled in the example above, the three final moiety categories that subsumed all otherVersus Codes were: Us [teachers] vs. Them [all other personnel, such as principals, school districts, the state department of education, state universities, etc. Our Way [experienced educators working at the local level who know their art and their students] Con-form [conformity to prescribed and standardized curricula] vs. Social change theory also suggests that humans are rarely in conflict with abstract concepts e.
Ground your initial Versus Coding in actual, observable conflicts. Abstract moiety categories can emerge during Second Cycle coding and later stages of analysis. Data are reviewed to find and juxtapose inconsis- tencies and contradictions that inhibit professional practice and decision- making. Sentence couplings such as these can be categorized appropriately and exam- ined by practitioners for reflection and action, or converted toVersus Codes for categorization and analysis.
Conflicts are contextual, nuanced, and each side has its own story to tell. Nevertheless,Versus Coding makes evident the power issues at hand as humans often perceive them — as binaries. Description focuses on patterned observations or participant responses of attributes and details that assess quality. Comparison explores how the program measures up to a stan- dard or ideal. Prediction provides recommendations for change, if needed, and how those changes might be implemented. Evaluation Coding can emerge from the evaluative perspective of the researcher or from the qualitative commentary provided by participants.
Selected coding methods profiled in this manual can be applied to or supple- ment Evaluation Coding e. Example The stewards of a community church surveyed its congregational membership to gather written data on their perceptions of worship services and program- ming. Selected individuals were interviewed for more in-depth response. A 45 year-old male who had recently left the church talks to a steward about his experiences. I wanted things to move on. Types of change to examine are shifts in participant skills, attitudes, feelings, behaviors, and knowledge.
Evaluation data can derive from individual interviews, focus groups, partic- ipant observation, surveys, and documents. Individuals each have their own opinions, so expect to find, and thus analyze and present, a wide range of responses, not just an overall assessment.
There are many forms of evaluation: outcome, implementation, prevention, summative, formative, etc. See Patton for an authoritative and full description of approaches, particularly for processual evaluation, and Stringer for the facilitation and implementa- tion of change as part of action research projects.
Rely primarily on what the partici- pants themselves — the primary stakeholders — say and do. Dramaturgical Coding, Motif Coding, and Narrative Coding draw from various literary traditions for their unique coding assignments to explore underlying sociological and psychological constructs.
Dramaturgical Coding approaches cultural life as performance and its par- ticipants as characters in social dramas. Though these methods appear highly systematic, they can lead toward rich arts-based presentations. Verbal Exchange Coding is H. Bud Goodall, Jr. Interview transcripts become monologue, soliloquy, and dialogue. Field notes and video of naturalis- tic social action represent improvised scenarios with stage directions. Environments, participant dress, and artifacts are viewed as scenery, costumes, and hand properties.
Dramaturgical Codes apply the terms and conventions of character, play script, and production analysis onto qualitative data. For character, these terms include such items as: 1. Participant-actor objectives — motives in the form of action verbs: OBJ 2. Conflicts or obstacles confronted by the participant-actor which prevent her from achieving her objectives: CON 3. Participant-actor tactics or strategies to deal with conflicts or obstacles and to achieve her objectives: TAC 4.
Dramaturgical Coding attunes the researcher to the qualities, perspectives, and drives of the participant. It also provides a deep understanding of how humans in social interaction interpret and manage conflict. Dramaturgical Coding is best applied to self-standing, inclusive vignettes, episodes, or stories in the data record.
I never looked at it that way. Also acknowledge that an Objective might also include not just what the participant-actor wants but what she wants other people to do. The attitudes, emotions, and subtexts clue you to the internal perspectives of the participant-actor during these situations. Another dramaturgical character concept is the superobjective — the overall or ultimate goal of the participant in the social drama. But additional stories culled from interviews and observations, coded appropriately, may reinforce that superobjective as the primary theme or reveal a different one at work within her.
Dramaturgical Coding is also applicable to field note data in which two or more participants interact in daily routines or are observed in conflict with each other. Comparing and contrasting their individual objectives and tactics as actions and reactions cyclically progress deepens your understanding of power relationships and the processes of human agency.
These infer- ences can sometimes be incorrect, and a follow-up interview with the partic- ipant-actor may be necessary for confirmation. Motif Coding may be better applied to story-based data extracted from interview transcripts or participant-generated documents such as journals or diaries. The story should be a self-standing unit of data — a vignette or episode — with a definite beginning, middle, and end.
Example A young adult male describes his strained relationship with his alcoholic father. Motif Coding using the Thompson Motif-Index has been applied to classify the tale type and several significant elements of this story although original researcher- generated Motif Codes could also have been applied.
Analysis Whether using an established index or your original creations for Motif Coding, the goal is to label both ordinary and significant elements of a story that have the potential for rich symbolic analysis.
Motif Coding is a creative, evocative method that orients you to the time- less qualities of the human condition, and represents contemporary, even mun- dane, social life with epic qualities. Motifs are part literary element and part psychological association. Additional indexing systems developed after his can be found in reference libraries and websites.
In this profile, Narrative Coding applies the conventions of primarily literary elements and analysis onto qual- itative texts most often in the form of stories. Nevertheless, there may be occasions when the researcher wishes to code participant narratives from a lit- erary perspective as a preliminary approach to the data to understand its sto- ried, structured forms.
Prosaic, poetic, and dramatic elements are used as codes to highlight the structure and properties of this narrative excerpt. Polkinghorne differentiates between paradigmatic and narrative cogni- tion. And among postmodernists, the process of narrative inquiry is not a solitary research act but a collaborative ven- ture between the researcher and participants. To most narrative inquirers, insight into the meanings of participant stories depends on deep researcher reflection through careful read- ing of the transcripts and extensive journaling.
Narrative researchers should also be attuned to story structures from the non-European canons and how that influences and affects retelling. Also see Crossley for a superb autobio- graphical and biographical interview protocol for narrative analysis in psy- chology. Coding begins with a precise transcription of the verbal exchange which includes nonverbal cues and pauses between the speakers.
B: OK. Simple exchanges such as these can communicate such cultural patterns as status, gender, race, and class differences, etc. Selected questions assist the ethnographer in coding, interpreting, and reflect- ing on the content and meaning of the verbal exchange.
Sample questions include:What is the nature of the relationship? What are the rhythms, vocal tones, and silences contributing to the overall meaning? Routines and Rituals of structured and symbolically meaningful actions dur- ing our day; 2. Surprise-and-Sense-Making Episodes of the unanticipated or unexpected; 3. Crises in a verbal exchange or as an overarching pattern of lived experi- ence; and 5.
Applications Verbal Exchange Coding is appropriate for a variety of human communication studies and studies that explore cultural practices. Verbal Exchange Coding can also be applied to preexisting secondary data ethnographic texts such as autoethnographies. The guidelines listed above should not suggest an overly systematic approach to analyzing verbal exchanges.
Verbal Exchange Coding is intended as an introductory approach for novices to closely examine the complexity of talk through focused parameters of conversation types and everyday cultural practices.
Interpretive meaning through extensive written reflection comparable to an analytic memo rather than traditional margined coding methods is encour- aged. Example A junior high school play production class in an inner city fine arts magnet program has just read a scripted adaptation of a traditional Mexican American folk tale, La llorona The Weeping Woman. Since Verbal Exchange Coding does not rely on margined entries, the exam- ple will scan across the entire page.
The coding narrative follows: NANCY: OK, how can we take the story, this is the old version, how can we update it character-wise and word-wise to also updating it with the rap? Like, how would you say if Maria was beautiful? How would you say that in slang? We need the updated word and the use of the rap together. I mean, where would you have this take place?
GIRL: A drive-by. BOY: She overdosed her kids. BOY: Yeah, they find them in a canal with bullet holes in their heads.
BOY: rapping Once upon a time, there was a chica. BOY: You been hanging around with that guy too much. GIRL: And then she lied about it later.
GIRL: No cuss words. CODING: This classroom verbal exchange is mostly ordinary conversation that ever-so- slightly peaks toward skilled conversation before it to accomplish the business of cre- ative work. Nancy asked her students, encouraged them in fact, to create a modern-day version of a violent folk tale. But in her role as public school educator she had to limit read: censor their ideas to what would be acceptable for a public audience read: parents on stage.
Communication of the adolescent voice, the inner city voice, the Hispanic voice, is what progressive multicultural education is all about. So the teacher, like a border patrol officer, has to stop these Hispanic youths from crossing the line. Lots of high school theatre programs in white suburban communities have faced the same censorship dilemma. The teacher is asking them to adapt a traditional folk tale into modern-day contexts for the purpose of creating art.
Continued reflection on the meanings of the classroom verbal exchanges documented above addresses such aspects as the culture of the school, theatre classroom culture, Hispanic culture, adolescent culture, the culture of violence, gang subculture, and their complex interrelationships and overlaps see Appendix C. The four-step reading and notation of verbatim text examines plot, first-person references as poetic structures, and contrapuntal voices e.
Since qualitative inquiry is an emergent process of investigation, these coding methods use tentative labels as the data are initially reviewed. After they have been analyzed in this manner, researchers might proceed to more specific First Cycle or Second Cycle coding methods. Holistic Coding applies a single code to each large unit of data in the cor- pus to capture a sense of the overall contents and the possible categories that may develop. As the cor- pus is reviewed, the hypothesis-driven codes confirm or disconfirm what was projected, and the process can refine the coding system itself.
The method is a preparatory approach to a unit of data before a more detailed coding or cate- gorization process through First or Second Cycle methods.
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